Food and Beverage Development

Introduction The conversion of raw materials for food and other substances is all entailed in the process of Food production. Food Production necessitates gathering the harvests and meat products from the farms and processing them to produce marketable food products. Due to the increase in population the rate of the food consumed has risen.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Food and Beverage Development specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Due to this, the rate of food production has also gone up. The food produced is now either low quality food or high quality food. The quality of food a consumer purchases depends on the income the consumer gets. This paper focuses on how food production and food consumption has affected the eating habits and led to the introduction of junk foods because of the production and consumption factors. The quality and quantity of food produced nowadays is higher in fats. Due to the increas ing incomes, consumption of high fat diets has increased since the consumers can afford the products. Nowadays there have been a slowed production of farm produce and crop yields. Consumers have reduced the intake of staple foods like cereals and are now preferring dairy and meat products. Demand for these goods has grown faster than the production leading to the decline in the quality of the final products. While referring to the history and origins of food consumption, it can be stated that complex of human experiences and activities creates a source of deep considerations for the sociologists. Beardsworth and Keil (1997) state that, through â€Å"†¦food intake is an inescapable physiological necessity, eating entails far more than its basic physiological dimensions† (p. 6). Apparently, the eating process implies a complex whole of sophisticated physiological, psychological, ecological, economic, social, political, and cultural dimensions. These series are heavily disc ussed and analyzed by social and anthropological sciences that think over existing challenges and questions. In this respect, Counihan and Esterik (1997), along with Forth Carden-Coyne (2005), support the idea of considering food as an important cultural element shaping the tastes of individuals and societies. In particular, they draw explicit parallels between the physiological body image and its relation to food consumption. This is of particular concern to Western cultures where people with excess weight were considered as well-off members of society. Existing stereotypes can create a number of problems in terms of human health, but, what is more important; it shapes future trends in the field of food industry (Ritzer, 2010).Advertising Looking for report on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Overall, pre-consideration of existing external factors influencing people’s outlook on food consumption shoul d be discussed in more detail (Montanari, 2006; Petrie, 2011). A number of concepts can be highlighted through the prism of current theories and frameworks, which will further be used in inventing strategies for enhancing a competitive edge among the leading food producers. Factors influencing food consumption and production While exploring the main activities in the field of the fast food industry, many companies should evaluate and define the major social and cultural factors that influence those activities before making important decision. The factors are strongly associated with a social, competitive, and legal setting that defines whether a company will gain its competitive advantage or lose it. The social factors have led to the impact on the availability of the product. Depending on a consumer’s economic status, the food produced can be available or unavailable depending on the economic status of the neighbourhood. Food production is low in areas covered by higher pove rty levels. The purchasing power of consumers in the urban areas is higher than in the rural areas. This is simply because consumers in the rural areas earn less than in the urban areas. The purchasing power also varies with the amount the consumer has to spend on other expenses e.g. house rent. Most of the food production industries are located in urban areas. Food consumption has affected the prices of the food produced, since the processing costs, energy costs and transportation are all passed to the consumer. Since the consumers are willing to pay for quality food and beverages with less preservatives and additives, industries have had to adapt to this trend. When processing and producing the food and beverages, industries should ensure the finished products satisfy the consumer’s requirements. Despite the fact that the world society lives in the era of globalization, the focus should still be placed on analysing local trends in developing food tastes and ways of consumpt ion (Cousins Lillicrap 2010). More importantly, the external environment provides a fuller picture of techniques and strategies that a company should use to protect a sustainable market share. The climate changes, global warming and water scarcity have affected food production. Farmers are cultivating their farms for better produce but when it comes to harvesting the yields are poor. Many farmers are becoming discouraged because of the losses they undergo. Due to these factors, consumers have to learn to take alternatives from the farm products to either animal and dairy products.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Food and Beverage Development specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Food production and consumption can be affected by the appearance, taste or flavour of the final product. When a final product is of quality, consumption of the product increases and thus there is increasing demand for the product. The comp any producing such a product has to increase its production rate to fulfill the consumers demand. A commodity can gain a sustainable market simply because it is sweet or it has a smart appearance. In this respect, numerous theories, trends and concepts have been introduced to determine a set of factors that influence further development of the food industry. The environment affects food production. The waste disposal and consumer activities have to a decline in basic foods processed. Food production and consumption in an area depends on the culture of the people in that area. The culture that every person has been brought up in has great influence on the choice of food he/she prefers. Food production in an area characterized by culture and beliefs is highly affected. Imagine a food production industry producing pork products in a Muslim community. This would be disastrous for the company because apart from the non-Muslims, the products cannot be consumed. This also has effects on th e farmer since the demand for the pigs he/she rears will be low. The type of food to be consumed also depends on the age and the members to be in the Sociological studies come to the forth when it comes to food and eating concept from a social perspective. While considering current trends in food consumption, the importance should also be attained in the past. Historical and social backgrounds, therefore, are among the most important aspects shaping the contemporary perspectives and tendencies in food and beverage production (Beardworth Keil, 1997, p. 13). Apart from social dimension, food trends are largely influenced by cultural issues. Many people having problems with food consumption, including obesity, take their roots in cultural context (Counihan Esterik, 1997, p. 203). In particular, such aspects as â€Å"the functioning of the family, the economic and class organization, the political system, the religious and magical beliefs, the values that men live by related to each other†¦.† (Counihan Esterik, 1997, p. 203). Judging from the above, consideration of multiple theories, concepts, and trends is important for defining further paths for developing food industry and for working out effective strategies.Advertising Looking for report on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Theories behind Food and beverage consumption Despite the fact that the world society lives in the era of globalization, the focus should still be placed on analysing local trends in developing food tastes and ways of consumption. Food choice, therefore, depends on many variables that are also defined through an individuals’ thinking process – behavior deciding and perceptual affective – which form the main underpinnings of the theory of planned behavior. The link between behaviour and attitude is evident and, as a result, the majority of food choices provides an exhaustive rational for predicting consumer demands (Connor, 1993). Judging from the previously presented assumptions, further emphasis should be placed on defining other food variables shaping the choices of individuals. These factors are predominantly external, as compared to the theory of planned behaviour (Mavando Farrell, 2003). Hence, consumer behaviour is also largely influenced by external cult ural, economic, and political environments that play a pivotal role in food preferences and people’s intention to purchase (Iop et al., 2006). The role of behaviour and the external environment is also heavily studied in the field of anthropology. From its viewpoint, basic concerns with food choice are specifically connected to the symbolism of thinness and fatness in various societies. According to Counihan and Esterik (1997), â€Å"†¦there might be conflicting values concerning fatness and thinness, about eating and †¦that of this conflict might stem from the fact that live in a rapidly changing society, where traditional values linger beside the new ones† (p. 203). Using a comparative approach, the researchers consider it necessary to attain the problem of obesity to the problem of changing patterns of food consumption, along with understanding the symbolism of thinness and ability in different cultures. While referring to anthropological studies, specific attention should be placed on the emerging culture of fast food consumption in the United States (Ritzer, 2010). According to the current trends, the world has become extremely rationalized because many people make choices while being dominated by predictability, efficiency, calculability, and advanced technologies controlling people’s mind. The so-called process is often referred as to McDonaldization, which is somewhat congruent with the Weber’s theory of rationalization. The process is specifically concerned with the basic trends of consumption where the main paradigm is a fast food restaurant (Ritzer, 2010, p. 25). Nowadays, people are more bound by institutionalized rules that help them decide which products to purchase. These principles completely differ from previously established patterns of consumption based on religious and cultural concerns (Han Sharon, 1994). Weber’s theory proclaims bureaucracy as the core paradigm of rationality possessing a grea t number of advantages over other approaches that help individuals make their food choices. The given theory is closely associated with the theory of reasoned action proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (Shepherd Raats, 2006, p. 46). According to this theory, subjective norms from the second aspect of intention. This determinant is defined â€Å"†¦ as perception of general social pressure to perform or not to perform a given behaviour† (Shepherd Raats, 2006, p. 46). Subjective norms are often perceived as pressure received from influential references. Prejudices and fixed stereotypes, therefore, are the leading ones in shaping people’s food choice (Philip, 1998). Contrary to the rational trends in understanding food consumption, it is imperative to discuss shifts of existing food consumption systems to understand why rational theories are not always effective in defining people’s choice. At this point, understanding social environment is important, but defining people’s needs and increasing consumer demand is far more important (Wilk, 2006). To support the idea, Peterson and Ammann (2003) believe that, despite the existing social and economic pressures, people are fully aware of their needs and concerns and, therefore, much of their preferences just comes from external pressure, but not from the internal needs. In this respect, specific emphasis should be placed on exploring the culture of taste among various countries and society to adjust existing values to changing preferences (Korsmeyer, 2005). Identifying the Main Strengths While discussing the key concepts and theories of food consumption and production, it is important to put a consideration to the external pressures and internal needs. Specific attention should be stressed to Weber’s theory of rationalization of food consumption that distorts tastes of individuals, along with the theory of planned behaviour that is impossible to ignore as far as the making choice is concerned. According to Weber’s theory, the rise in the cost of food and beverages is triggered by the increased demand for the food and beverages (Cousins Lillicrap 2010). The livelihood status of the consumers has improved due to better pay. When the consumers’ income increases, they tend to change from buying cheaper food and beverages to more expensive ones. This leads to industries replacing lower quality foods and beverages with those of more quality. This forces the industries to hike the prices of the finished products. Finally, exploring prehistory of food culture, as well as considering food choice with regard to taste culture should come up with existing social and economic conditions. Highlighting the Main Weaknesses Theory of reasoned action revealed subjective norms influencing people’s choice. However, it does not define human awareness and behaviour as the leading decision making process. Similarly, the focus should be made on perceptual aspects of individuals rather on external social pressure while working out a specific rationale for developing strategies (Adorno, 1991; Goody, 1982). Alternatively, the existing problems with obesity, as well as distorted stereotypes, can have negative consequences for human health. Working out Strategies for Food Production and consumption An in-depth analysis of existing theories and models of food consumption provides a salient insight into the problems and concerns connected to existing trends in producing food (Derensky, 2008). The relation between cultural orientation of consumers and organizational culture is evident because it has a potent impact on existing business environment (Mavando and Farrell, 2003). Numerous producers fail to think over future trends in food production with regard to local cultures and rituals. Ignoring such aspects as local development and making an emphasis on mass culture can prevent leading companies from attracting more consumers and gaining a compet itive edge (Blackwel et al, 2001). Indeed, global orientation and successful marketing can be enhanced in case major companies consider the role of local culture and development in shaping the market (Hofstede, 1998). At this point, Hofstede (1998) states, â€Å"virtuous behaviour toward others consists of treating others as one would like to be treated oneself: a basis human benevolence† (p. 8). In this respect, defining the basic needs of local consumers can contribute to predicting the needs of people originating from other cultures. Capturing the main values and their relationship to consumer behaviour leads to defining three types of needs that can be satisfied by the producers – experiential, functional, and social (Kim et al, 2002). In this respect, experiential needs must be associated with the importance of flavour and taste in human experience (Korsmeyer, 2005). Social needs are connected with the globalization process and pressure of external environment (Wa ters, 2010). Reorganization of food industry and deviation from the concept of fast-food restaurants can provide a new level of food product (Yiannas, 2009). In other words, food producers should take a greater responsibility over their consumers to ensure supply of healthy and secure food. More importantly, it can attract more guests and customers from other countries, which can contrite to creating a sustainable market share (Baum, 1995; Lindgreen et al., 2009). Sustaining and developing a safe and advanced approach to food production can improve the marketing situation and provide producers with new methods of advertising products. Hence, greater importance should be attained to the quality and health of consumers because these issues are closely connected to the global economy and ecology. Predicting the failure of famous brands should make the leading producers rethink their strategies of marketing goods and provide changes to different spheres of production and advertising. Co nclusion Food consumption and consumer behaviour depend on a large number of factors, including social, cultural, economic, and legal. These external aspects should be carefully considered by many companies for the purpose of achieving a competitive advantage over other companies and sustain proper development of market share. In order to define what lies behind the concepts of food consumption, a number of theories have been investigated. Theory of planned behaviour, consideration of local culture, and theory of reasoned actions, along with Webber theory have been analysed to define which framework is the most effective one to apply to future strategic management in the field of the food industry. It has been defined, however, that both general social pressures, as well as individual preferences should be taken into consideration while building effective business strategies. In addition, food producers should focus on the development of innovative and safe approaches to food produc tion and distribution. At this point, fast-food mass culture should be gradually changed in the culture of healthy and secure food sustaining human welfare. This implies that famous brands can lose their competitive advantage unless their strategies for food marketing are changed. References Adorno, T 1991, The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture, Routledge, London. Baum, T 1995, Managing Human Resources in the European Tourism and Hospitality Industry, Chapman Hall, London. Beardworth, A, Keil, T 1997, Sociology on the Menu: An Invitation to the Study of Food and Society, Routlegde, London. Blackwel, R. et al 2001, Consumer behavior (5th edition), The Dryden Press, US. Connor MT 1993, ‘Understanding Determinants of Food Choice: Contributions from Attitude Research’, British Food Journal, vol. 95, no. 9. pp. 27-31. Counihan, C Esterik, PV 1997, Food and Culture: A Reader, Routledge, London. Cousins, J Lillicrap, D 2010, Food and Beverage Service, Hodder Education, London, UK. Derensky, H 2008, International Management: Managing Across Borders and Cultures. Pearson Prentice Hall, US. Forth, CE Carden-Coyne, A 2005, Cultures of the abdomen: diet, digestion, and fat in the modern world, Palgrave Macmillan, US. Goody, J 1982, Cooking, Cuisine, and Class: A Study in Comparative Sociology (Theme in Social Sciences), UK Han, S. and Sharon S. 1994, ‘Persuasion and Culture: Advertising Appeals in Individualistic and Collectivistic Societies’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 30, pp. 326-350. Hofstede, G. 1998, ‘The Confucius connection: Form cultural roots to economic growth’, Organizational Dynamics, vol. 4, pp. 12-13. Iop, SCF, Teixeira, E Deliza, R 2006 ‘Consumer research: extrinsic variables in food studies’, British Food Journal; vol.108 no. 11, pp. 894-903. Kim, J, Forsythe, S, GU, Q, Moon, SJ 2002, ‘Cross-cultural consumer values, needs and purchase behaviour’; Co nsumer Marketing, Vol. 19 no. 6, pp. 481-503. Korsmeyer, C 2005, The Taste Culture Reader: Experiencing Food and Drink, Oxford Berg, UK. Lindgreen, A, Hingley, MK Vanhamme, J 2009, The Crisis of Food Brands: Sustaining Safe,Innovative and Competitive Food Supply, US: Gower Publishing, Ltd. Mavando, F Farrell, M 2003, ‘Cultural orientation: its relationship with market orientation, innovation, and organizational performance’, Management Decision, vol. 42, no. 3. pp. 241-249. Montanari, M 2006, Food is Culture, Columbia University Press, US. Peterson, D, Ammann, K 2003, Eating Apes, University of California Press, US. Petrie, K 2011, Food Culture: Celebrating Diverse Traditions, ABDO, US. Philip, L.J 1998, ‘Combining quantitative and qualitative approaches to social research in humangeography – an impossible mixture?’, Environment Planning A, vol. 30, pp. 261-267. Ritzer, G 2010, The McDonalization of Society, Pine Forge Press, US. Shepherd, R Raa ts, M 2006, The psychology of food choice, CABI, US. Waters, M 2010, ‘McDonalization and the Global Culture of Consumption’, In G Ritzer and Z Atalay (eds.), Readings in Globalization: Key Concepts and Major Debate, John Wiley and Sons, US. Wilk, R 2006, Fast food/slow food: the cultural economy of the global food system, Rowman Altamira ,US.. Yiannas, F 2009, Food Safety Culture: Creating a Behavior-Based Food Safety Management System, Springe, US. This report on Food and Beverage Development was written and submitted by user Jaycob H. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Development of a Systematic Perspective on School Based Management Policy and Implementation

Development of a Systematic Perspective on School Based Management Policy and Implementation Introduction The research paper is a critical examination of the concept of school based management. It is no doubt that public schools have in the recent past rethought and redesigned the manner with which they opt to operate effectively and efficiently via the process of restructuring or systematic reforms (Fiske, 1995).Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Development of a Systematic Perspective on School Based Management Policy and Implementation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More To show that the matter is a serious issue, various countries across the globe have initiated such approaches in order to uplift national education. An example of such is Indonesia where the central government came up with a commission of national education that was back in 2001; this decentralized education. This was realized by formation of school councils which were later realized to bring democratic leadership translating to hig her level of parent participation in issues relating to governing the schools as well as improved national education level (Bryk et al., 1998). In the wake of 21st centaury it is worth noting that all Indonesia public schools had adopted school based management. It is thus very important to emphasis the importance of balancing between centralization and decentralization of policies regarding school based management. In the strictest terms, school based management has been though of as the mechanisms used to decentralize decision making authority to the school site which is a popular approach that gain momentum in early 1980s thanks to school reform movements (Weiss, 1992). As noted, majority of schools have make efforts in trying to implement this approach in managing budgets, curriculum among other issues in schools. The various advantages of the approach brought forth by proponents include the following; learners will be offered best programs since resources are wisely allocated; better decisions are arrived at since it is made by a group and not individuals and it also results to enhance communication between and among the relevant stakeholders. To address the issue of SBM the paper will develop systematically and defend with sound reasons and arguments a version of SBM together with its associated accountability mechanisms that would be appropriate for a school in the United Kingdom.Advertising Looking for critical writing on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Additionally, the successes associated with SBM are also of importance. The challenges that will be faced in trying to implement the proposed approach will be tackled. Lastly an explanation of how best SBM can be used to promote improvements in students learning outcomes will be covered. A version of School Based Management As noted previously, SBM main objective and aim is to bring about positive change. It is worth noting fr om the onset that SBM seeks to transfer a number of responsibility and decision making with regards to operation of schools not only to teacher and principals but also to parents, students, and business people among other stakeholders. Nonetheless, such decentralization of authority needs to be in line with policies that are centrally determined. It is no doubt that there are a number of SBM programs that that can be employed in public school. The differences usually arise both in terms of the one bestowed with the power and responsibility in coming up with decisions as well as to what degree of coming up with decisions have been devolved o schools and its constituents (Katyal Evers, 2007). Among the version in place include the following; the one in which the principals or teachers are bestowed with the power to execute the authority. With this version, the principal has the ultimate authority but the council only advices him. The second approach which I will further discus is whe re the parents, students as well as community participates. Generally speaking the program does delegate duties in such areas as coming up with school budgets, infrastructural improvements, hiring and firing of teachers, developing school curriculum, issues relating to textbooks, coming up with the school calendar aimed at meeting the needs and aspirations of the community, monitoring as well as evaluating performance of teachers to mention but a few. According to Oswald, 1995: Par. 2 [In an SBM system, authority can transfer from the state government to school boards, from school boards to superintendents, from superintendents to principals, from principals to other members of the school community such as teachers and parents, or some combination of two or more of these]. In any organization a chain of command is deemed important for a number of reasons. On of them being that individuals or groups will clearly know who to report to and secondly it enhances holding such groups or in dividuals accountable for their actions. It has been shown that for SBM to be adopted in a successful manner there is need to actively incorporate all the relevant authorities.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Development of a Systematic Perspective on School Based Management Policy and Implementation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This only happens where the principal adopts an approach to making decision that is team oriented. With such a system in place all relevant stakeholders such as teachers, parents, the community and students will feel part of the team hence develop positive attitude towards the schools’ activities. Additionally a sense of ownership is build when decisions are arrived at from a team format (Leithwood Menzies, 1998). Having in mind that the local communities understands their problems better the version of SBM rests on the fact that communities should be taking an active role in the efforts aimed at bettering services related to education that majorly include ho to plan, monitor as well as evaluate programs that are educational via the school councils (Murphy Beck, 1995). A school council has been thought as an independent body that is formed to offer advice, â€Å"directions and support for personnel, facilities and equipment as well as monitoring of schools†. With such a council in place there are certain roles they will play which include; being an advisor and help schools determine as well as approve educational policies, being an agency in supporting schools when it comes to issues of finances, being a controlling body with the ultimate goal of bringing transparency and accountability and lastly being a mediator between the school and other external bodies such as governments among others. For my version, the council should be independent and opt to not have any hierarchal link with the government. It formation should be open, accountab le as well as being democratic. To form a council, a school needs to form a committee comprising of members from the following divides; education practitioners; principal, representatives of the teachers, parents, religious as well as community representatives (Oswald, 1995). The later opt to be made up of non governmental organizations, local authority, religious leader’s business people and a person deemed to be of a public figure. The responsibility of the committee is to set everything right for election of council members.  It is worth noting that the number to be included in the council varies with the size of the school. Ideally the provision calls for selection of at least 9 members. Having representatives from principal, community, teachers, local government and school foundation is key. Among the major reasons why I think this version is best rests on its ability to ensure that all relevant stakeholders are incorporated in their decision making processes. The adva ntage with this is that it brings a sense of ownership hence making the relevant stakeholders feel part of the team and will support the decisions arrived at (Murphy Beck, 1995).  Additionally having the approach not being related to the central governments helps in ensuring that the decision arrived at as well as ideas brought forth by the relevant stakeholders are solemnly based and identified from its natural settings (Weiss, 1992).Advertising Looking for critical writing on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It is no doubt that this results in coming up with solutions tailored in curbing local problems. Similarly, there are chances of the principal making sound decisions as he is provided with an opportunity to learn more and improves his/her leadership styles. To exemplify this, when firing a teacher, all the relevant stakeholders through the council will adequately analyze the issue at hand before coming to a conclusion. This plays a major role in ensuring that good teachers are not fired just because they differ in ideologies with their bosses (Oswald, 1995). It has also been argued that such an approach of SBM brings with it an effective way of communication. Having in mind that information is power, each an every party will not be left in the dark when important decisions are arrived at. Through the committee, teachers, parents, students, the principal and the community representatives will be adequately informed of what will be happening in the near future. With such an approach, their views are highly welcomed to help arrive at the final decision (Murphy Beck, 1995). Additionally, the chosen approach ensures that individuals take responsibility. Where thing will go wrong, there is a group of individuals who can be easily held accountable. For instance if teachers or parents have not play their roles adequately then there is room to call them and hold them accountable for what they have done or failed to do. Accountability mechanism As held by Leithwood Menzies, 1998 it is no doubt that having SBM program without its associated transparency and accountability mechanisms is nothings. There is need to provide a mechanism within the program that will ensure all stakeholders actively take part in forming policies as well as effectively evaluate the school. This goes an extra mile in enhancing transparency and accountability. Despite the fact that the program provides schools with autonomy there is need to hold higher level of accountability either internally o r externally. Weiss, 1992 indentified that for the internal accountability mechanisms, there is need to have in place an efficient and effective control mechanisms that will prevent financial malpractices that are self centered which might ultimately harm the school. Having in place such mechanisms will ensure that there is proper use of financial resources in line with the existing relevant laws and guidelines. Issues related to corruptions and kickbacks need to be adequately addressed.  Consequently, the school opt to examine analyze their plans more frequently in order to establish whether it is running its activities in accordance with the real demands and the direction of school development. With this being accomplished, there is need to make necessary alterations when called for. Having in place mechanisms to ensure a systematic as well as a regular system of evaluating itself there are higher chances of the school being able to analyze how effective it is in offering qualit y services. This brings with it the advantage of self-evaluating translating to improvements and a development that is continuous (Katyal Evers, 2007). Another mechanism for accountability and transparency is for the school to correctly utilize school report as well as functions in order to adequately make the various stakeholders aware of progress of the school and how the student are fairing on. Lastly, when a team work approach is used to arrive at any decision this provides a system in which transparency is enhanced as well as providing internal checks and balances (Weiss, 1992). It is not enough to have in place internal accountability mechanisms; this thus calls for external one. The committee as well as the council needs to ensure that the program (SBM) is executed in a manner that is in line with relevant laws and regulations of the land. This will help in ensuring that the school is not in trouble with the government as well as local authority. In situations where the scho ol receives grants as well as subsidies from the government it opt to comply with the Code of Aid as well as all other terms associated with the same. On the same note, the plans to develop the school need to be in line with the requirements and provision in the government policies relating to education (Leung, 2005). According to Leung, 2005 there is need to have in place a yearly school account audit done by an external registered certified public accountant the same should be submitted to Education Management Board. This will ensure that whatever the school will be doing in terms of using the financial resources, they will be careful not to mess things up since there is someone who will cross check the same; ultimately resulting to transparency and accountability. Responsibilities of the stakeholders As already established there are various stakeholders who actively participate in ensuring that SBM is realized. Despite the fact that there are a myriad of responsibilities from the various stakeholders, there are some general ones which will be addressed herein. For instance, the council is bestowed with the responsibility of formulating and approving school policies as well as mission and vision, annual school programs as well as budget, designing strategic plan aimed at developing the school, determining the desired standards for learning, developing mechanisms to offer incentives to the principal and the teaching staff, creating an environment that is characterized with transparency, accountability as well as democracy aimed at improving quality of education in the school and encouraging increased participation of the various stakeholders in forming, implementing, monitoring as well as evaluating policies for the school (Yukl, 2006). Similarly, the council helps in fundraising aimed at providing the school with financial resources, identifying as well as solving emerging problems, forming partnerships as well as networks between the school and other extern al organizations aimed at improving education, responding to local as well as national requirements in the curriculum and lastly mobilizing both financial as well as non financial resources for the betterment of the school (Leung, 2005). The principal who is seen as the school manager is bestowed with responsibilities broadly categorized as policy making and management. The later involves such actions as determining promotion as well as dismissal of teacher but with conjunction with the council, manage school’s resources, create an environment in which both students as well as teachers will thrive (Katyal Evers, 2007). Additionally, the principal is responsible for ensuring that effective communication is enhances between and among the various stakeholders. On the same note, the principal opt to be accountable to the stakeholders including students, parents, teachers and the local community. Concerning teachers, they are responsible for ensuring that students are offered wit h quality education as well as monitoring and evaluating their performances. On top of this teacher are influential in making decisions as they take part in â€Å"planning, developing, monitoring, and improving instructional programs within the school† (Yukl, 2006: 45) Parents role and influence varies and include contributing in decision making, encouraging their children, support implementation of proposed policies, holding the manager as well as teachers accountable to mention but a few. Benefits of SBM There are several benefits associated with adopting SBM. One major one is that it enhances parental involvement. It has been shown that parent involvement to issues relating to their children helps them achieve more. In situations where parents actively monitor the progress of their student, they will be able to know their areas of weakness and try to help them. Additionally, when parents are involved, they create a learning environment back at home. This has been seen when they help their children do homework and encourage a culture of learning (Yukl, 2006). Similarly, parents do encourage their children by making them know they are unique and are capable of achieving academic excellence. In terms of social behavior, parent involvement help in shaping the manner of student and will try to avoid being in trouble. Lastly and more importantly, student whose parent are actively involved in their learning develop positive attitude hence have lower chances of dropping out of schools. Other benefits include an increase in quality as well as quantity of information sharing largely characterized by face to face communication. Having adequate information the relevant stakeholders will definitely make rational decision since they are not left in the dark in issues relating to school development (Leung, 2005). Additionally, SBM seek to bring both financial and instructional resources to be aligned with school’s goals, mission and objectives. This ultimate ly results to having in place programs aimed at providing students with better services (Weiss, 1992). In situations where there is delegation of duties and responsibilities, there are higher chances of the program nurturing new leaders across the various stages. This ensures that the organizations will have internally nurtured leaders who can rise to the occasion whenever called upon to take some responsibilities. On the same note, it is evident that the mechanisms for accountability and transparency will ensure that all relevant stakeholders work hard in ensuring that their activities are within existing laws, regulations and guidelines.  As suggested by Katyal Evers, 2007 SBM provide teachers, the community as well as the staff a higher chance of actively being involved when the school makes vital decisions. Such an initiative brings several advantages such as feelings of ownership and responsibility among others. Similarly, the approach ensures that it utilizes the expertise as well as competence of individuals who are working in the school to come up with decisions that will improve learning outcomes. This mainly rests on the ability of coming up with local solutions to local problems. According to Morrison, 2002 it is also important to point out that the decisions arrived at by the various stakeholders have been associated with increased students tests scores, decreased rates of dropouts as well as lower levels of suspensions and expulsion. According to Bryk et al 1998: 128; [In schools making systemic changes, structures are established which create opportunities for such interactions to occur. As teachers develop a broader say in school decision making, they may also begin to experiment with new roles, including working collaboratively. This restructuring of teachers’ work signifies a broadening professional community where teachers feel more comfortable exchanging ideas, and where a collective sense of responsibility for student development is likely to emerge. These characteristics of systemic restructuring contrast with conventional school practice where teachers work more autonomously and there may be little meaningful professional exchange among co-workers. ] Challenges facing implementation of SBM Just like any other program, SBM anticipates various challenges although in varying degrees. A major challenge is that of the stakeholders encountering more work characterized by confusion with regards to new responsibilities and tasks, problems in having an effective manner of coordination as well as performance of the school in a manner that is not even. Similarly, according to (Fiske, 1995: 212) SBM is a complex undertaking, raising multiple policy issues involving lines of authority for making decisions and responsibility and accountability for the consequences of such decisions,† This can be attested by problems associated with accountability where the school may want to exercise full authority over decision b ut the council will be held accountable. Additionally, lack of adequate knowledge and skills from some stakeholders might jeopardize the efforts of successfully implementing SBM. Such problems can be seen in communication and information sharing, lack of skills in decision making as well as trust issues among and between the involved parties (Yukl, 2006). On the same line of reasoning, there are instances where the teachers as well as the school manger or the principal might be reluctant to provide other parties the opportunity to actively engage in collective decision making.  It has also been shown that poor leadership can be another serious barrier to successful implementation of SBM program. It is worth noting that effective leadership is key in whatever field of study. When the one at the realm of the organization fails to demonstrate qualities such as team work, 360 communication frameworks, creating a democratic environment, being an effective communicator, acting assertive ly among other, then the chances of bringing everyone on board to consult and reach a consensus might not be realized (Bryk et al., 1998). SBM in promoting improvements in students To ensure that SBM is used to improve students learning, it is important for the stakeholders to be fully aware of what SBM is; what it can do as well as what it cannot do. This will help them tailor the policies towards achievable initiatives geared towards encouraging effective learning. However, it has been established that despite the fact that all relevant steps aimed at fostering improvement in students learning, they all depend on effective leadership. This concept ensures that all the relevant steps such as creating an environment that supports teaching and learning is created (Leithwood Menzies, 1998). This will also go an extra mile in making parents encourage to get involved hence resulting to supporting their children as well as school initiatives aimed at fostering students learning.  Addi tionally effective leadership ensures that there is effective communication characterized by 360 feedback mechanisms. With this, the teachers will make the test scores of students as well as the reasons behind the performances and recommendations to improve on them (Yukl, 2006). Having in place an inclusive approach, then all the relevant stakeholders will actively engage in activities that will help resolve the problem. On the same note effective leaders will strive in creating a cordial and interactive links with the students, teachers as well as other non teaching staffs. With this the major problems hindering education achievement can be pinpointed and as a result of collaboration of the various stakeholders viable solutions can be developed (Morrison, 2002). Conclusion From the review of School Based Management, it is evident that the concept despite of coming to limelight in 1980s, it has been adopted by majority of schools. It aims at decentralizing authority and improves sch ool performance. The version of SBM proposed is where the decisions are arrived via consultation and consensus between the council and the principal. Among the argument in support of this approach include ownership of decision, developing sound and rational decision, stakeholders feel involved hence offer their best among others. The mechanisms of enhancing accountability and transparency include external annual auditing and have in place efficient and effective control mechanisms that will prevent financial malpractices that are self centered which might ultimately harm the school among others. The paper has also tackled the various responsibilities of the relevant stakeholders. Similarly, the benefits of SBM have been addressed. The challenges hindering successful implementation of the program have also been addressed. Lastly having effective leadership and all relevant stakeholders being aware of what SBM is are necessary in ensuring that SBM can be used to improve and promote st udent learning. References Bryk, T. et al. (1998). Charting Chicago School Reform. Boulder, CO, Westview Press. Fiske, E. (1995). â€Å"Systematic school reform: Implications for architecture† In A. Meek (Ed.) Designing places for learning. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Katyal, K. Evers, C. (2007). â€Å"Parents partners or clients? A re-conceptualization of home-school interactions†, Teaching Education, 18(1): 61-76. Leithwood, K. Menzies, T. (1998). â€Å"Forms and effects of school-based management: A review† Educational Policy, 12: (3) 325-346. Leung, C. (2005). â€Å"Accountability versus school development: self-evaluation in an international school in Hong Kong†, International Studies in Educational Administration, 33(1): 2-14. Morrison, K. (2002). School Leadership and Complexity Theory. London: Routledge/Falmer. Murphy, J. Beck L. (1995). School-based Management as School Reform. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Oswald, L. (1995). ‘School Based Management† College of Education  · University of Oregon. Web. Weiss, C. (1992). â€Å"Shared decision making about what? A comparison of schools with and without teacher participation† Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco. Yukl, G. (2006). Leadership in Organizations. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

International Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words - 2

International Marketing - Essay Example This essay will conduct an internal and external environment analysis to develop effective business entry strategies. Discussion Magnit and Cityline operate within different industries. It is highly important for the organizations to determine the external environmental opportunities and threats before developing the market entry strategy. Following PEST and Porter’s five Force analyses will help the organizations to determine key external environmental opportunities and threats. PEST Analysis PEST analysis helps an organization to determine the overall impact of external environmental factors on the business performance of the organization. Political India is a politically stable country. The government of India is influencing several international organizations to enter in the Indian market. As the entry of foreign players can overcome several economic and social challenges, government can support the organizations. First of all, the market entry of two organizations can som ehow help the nation to overcome challenges like rising unemployment rate. Employment generation will help the people of country to betterment their lifestyles (Shan, 1991, pp.12-15). Looking into these aspects, it can be stated that the political environment is favourable for Magnit retail chain and Cityline internet service provider. Economical India is economically developing country. Purchasing power and disposable income of people are growing at a significant rate on yearly basis. It is true that India has achieved significant growth rate during the period of recent global economic recession and financial crisis. These favourable economic factors can... This report stresses that Magnit and Cityline are the Russian organizations that do not have any kind of international presence. Huge popularity and high market share in Russia influenced these two organizations to decide to go for global expansion strategy. Magnit is one of the leading retail chains in Russia. On the other hand, Cityline is one of the largest internet service providers in Russia. Magnit is trying to target potential target customers in India as it is true that the demand for consumption of consumer goods in the retail chain has increased significantly among the target customers. On the other hand, Cityline is trying to follow B2B business model as the organization is trying to target the business units and organizations to provide high speed internet prices in competitive package prices. It is clear from above discussion that both the organizations can capitalize on several favourable external environmental opportunities. This paper makes a conclusion that the external threats are quite minimal for both organizations. It is important for both of these organizations to develop an effective market entry strategy as the future performance in India is highly depending upon the developed market entry strategy. It is important for Magnit to follow Joint Venture Model in Indian market as it will help the organization in initial stages. The associated venture will help Magnit to get required business capital and operation resources in low cost. On the other hand, it will be effective for Cityline to follow Franchisee business model as it will help the organization to reduce initial political risks and high operation cost. The franchisee owners will help the parent company or franchiser or Cityline to develop effective customer base.

Gender is not something one is, it is something one dose it is a Essay

Gender is not something one is, it is something one dose it is a sequence of acts, a doing rather then a being - Essay Example Butler (1986) states that the common thinking about how a female becomes a woman is governed by patriarchy and phallogocentric language â€Å"which precedes and determines the subject itself† (Butler, 1986, p. 36). In other words, Butler (1986) believes that the term â€Å"woman† is defined passively, not by the women themselves, but by the patriarchal culture. That said, de Beauvoir (1973) believes that oppression is not inevitable, but, rather, they persist because of cultural reasons. Butler (1990) further states that the concept of a universal patriarchy has come under fire, because patriarchy exists in â€Å"concrete cultural contexts† (Butler, 1990, p. 3). Butler (1990) also states that there is the possibility that women might have a bond through their oppression alone. Connell (1992) further states that gender, in and of itself, is a construction of power and hegemony, which means that the male identity is also influenced by culture and these outside forc es. Connell (1992) believes that masculine identities may be hegemonic or marginalized – some masculine identities are the former, others are the latter. Similarly, there is a difference between masculinity and femininity, and this, too, is contrasted with the terms â€Å"male† and â€Å"female.† Bartky (2003) states the one achieves femininity, whereas one is born female. The same with masculinity – men might achieve masculinity, and be born male, or, alternatively, as with many homosexual men, one may be born male but not achieve masculinity. As with the philosophies of de Beauvoir and Butler, Bartky (2003) states that the concept of masculinity and femininity is dictated by the power structure, which states what the contours are of masculinity and femininity (Bartky, 2003). This article will examine how patriarchy and society has defined both men and women throughout the modern era. Discussion Standards of Beauty As de Beauvoir (1973) states, the femin ine identity, and what it means to be a woman is defined by patriarchy and the male. In no area of a woman’s life is this more apparent than the standards of beauty, which are male-dominated. Women feel that they must conform to these male-dictated beauty standards, or they are somehow less than. The feminine ideal for beauty, therefore, is not only ever-changing, but is dictated by the power structure and patriarchy. Lorber (1993) states that the feminine ideal, at least during the early 1990s, which is when Lorber’s article was written, was slim-slim-hipped, small breasted and virtually emaciated. Women starved themselves for this ideal, and this ideal sold many magazines which promised women a way to become thinner, in order to fit this ideal. While this was the ideal in the early 1990s, and, more or less, continues to be today’s ideal, this was not always so – the feminine body ideal has changed over the years, according to society and culture. Calabr ese et al. (2011) state that the feminine ideal is epitomized by Playboy models, which is similar to the ideal stated by Lorber (1993), in that the women is to be slim-hipped and slender, overall. However, in this ideal, the woman must also have large breasts. Barbie dolls exemplify this ideal, and girls and women increasingly pressured to fit this ideal, to the extent that they require plastic surgery to do so (Calabrese et al.., 2011). Frederick et al. (2007) state that these feminine ideals, as pushed upon society by

Challenges and issues regarding the effectiveness of the two way Essay

Challenges and issues regarding the effectiveness of the two way immersion program - Essay Example The two way immersion teachers integrate the majority and minority languages at the same school and deliver the content by equally using two different languages. The main goal of dual language education is to improve students’ bilingual skills, academic learning, and tendency to learn different cultural aspects from each other (Lindholm-Leary, 2012). In my research, I will discuss the challenges and issues that may negatively impact the outcomes of language learning in two way immersion and bilingual programs. These challenges may need to be considered in order to encourage parents to enroll their children in such programs. The first challenge is the perception that increased exposure to English develops higher level of proficiency in the children (Genesee and Lindholm-Leary, 2008). The study demonstrated that there is no correlation between the amount of time spent by English language learners in English language instructions, and higher level of proficiency. One study drew comparison between English language learners getting little English instructions in schools and students enrolled in a dual language program that learn the contents by equally using English language and their native language. The study showed that students who received little English have similar or more advanced proficiency compared to the proficiency of st udents that studied in dual language program (Lindholm-Leary, 2012). However, I think many other components such as untrained teachers and poor curriculum may influence the effectiveness of dual language programs. In my own experience of acquiring English language, I have observed that the Saudi schools do not mandate the teachers to use English language to teach English subjects, even though English subjects need to be taught in English. However, as a former Saudi student willing to learn English language, I tried to create my own English language environment; my TV

Comparison Of Windows Unix And Linux Computer Science Essay

Comparison Of Windows Unix And Linux Computer Science Essay In this term paper study of different OS are done. To know which is better the features , pros and cons are compared. Also the reliability of each OS is consider for this study. Since OS is the most important program of a computer, therefore the study of good software is also plays an important role. WHAT IS OPERATING SYSTEM: An operating system is a main program that is designed to run other programs on a computer. A computers operating system is its most important program. It is considered to the backbone of a computer, which manages both software and hardware. Operating systems are made for everything from the control and allocation of memory to get input from external devices and display output to computer screen. They also manage files on computer hard drives and peripherals. The operating systems acts as the human guide to interact with the computer hardware. They are responsible for linking application programs with the hardware, thus achieving an easy user access to the computers. Figure : Operating System terminology; TYPES OF OS: Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that used to executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use special scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a better behavior. The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick response to events. Multi-user: The operating systems of this type allow a multiple users to access a computer system concurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is called a single-tasking system, while in case the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two types namely, pre-emptive or co-operative. Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating system. Embedded System: The operating systems designed for being used in embedded computer systems are known as embedded operating systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. DIFFERENT OPERATING SYSTEMS: WINDOWS: Windows is a personal computers operating system from Microsoft corporation that, together comes with some commonly used applications. Windows has become a standard for common users in most organizations as well as in most homes. Microsoft Windows is a series of operating systems and graphical user interfaces produced by Microsoft. Microsoft first introduced an operating environment named Windows as an add-on to MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Windows has approximately 91% of the market share of the client operating systems. The most recent client version of Windows is Windows 7; the most recent server version is Windows Server 2008 R2; the most recent mobile OS version is Windows Phone 7. UNIX: Unix is a computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of ATT employees at Bell Labs. Todays UNIX system is split into number of branches, developed over time by ATT as well as various commercial vendors and other organizations. UNIX was created to provide a multiuser, multitasking system for users. The object behind the design of UNIX was to provide simple, yet powerful utilities that could be pieced together in a flexible manner to perform a wide variety of tasks. Unix is a family of multi-user operating systems. Unix has a very strong security and model and relatively simple design, making it popular and fairly easy to implement. Many operating systems are either based on or modeled after the first Unix systems, such as Linux, Solaris, or Mac OS X. The UNIX operating system comprises three parts: The kernel, the standard utility programs, and the system configuration files. LINUX Linux is a Unix based operating system that was designed to provide personal computer users a free or very low-cost operating system comparable to traditional and usually more expensive Unix systems. Linux has a reputation as a very efficient and fast-performing operating system. Linux is a remarkably complete operating system, including a graphical user interface, an X Window System, TCP/IP, and other components usually found in a traditional systems. Unlike Windows and other proprietary systems, Linux is free and publicly open and modifiable by contributors. Because it conforms to the Portable Operating System Interface standard user and programming interfaces, developers can write programs that can be ported to other operating systems. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source software collaboration; typically all the underlying source code can be used, freely modified, and redistributed, both commercially and non-commercially, by anyone under licenses such as the GNU General Public License. FEATURES OF UNIX The UNIX Operating System is available on systems with a large range of computing power, from microcomputers to mainframes, and on different manufactures machines. No other operating system can make this possible. We see the reasons of popularity and success of UNIX. The reasons are the following: Portability: The system is designed in high-level language making it easier to read, understand, change and, therefore move to other machines. The code can be changed and complied on a new machine. Machine-independence: The System hides the machine architecture from the user, making it easier to write applications that can run on micros and mainframes. Multi-User Operations: UNIX is a multi-user system designed to support a group of users simultaneously. The system allows for the sharing of processing power and peripheral resources, white at the same time providing excellent security features. Hierarchical File System: UNIX uses a hierarchical file structure to store information. This structure has flexible in grouping information in a way that reflects its natural state. It allows for easy maintenance and efficient implementation. UNIX shell: UNIX has a simple user interface called the shell that has the power to provide the services that the user wants. It protects the user from having to know the hardware details. Utilities: UNIX has over 200 utility programs for various functions. New utilities can be built effortlessly by combining existing utilities. FEATURES OF LINUX Linux has the following features as an outstanding operating system which is strong in security and networking. Multitasking Several programs can run at the same time since it provides number of consoles at the same time. Multiuser Several users can use to the same machine at the same time There is no need to have separate user licenses for different users. Multiplatform: Linux can runs on many different CPUs, that means it supports multiprocessor machine as well as single processor system. Multithreading Linux has native kernel support for multiple independent threads of control within a single process memory space to provide better performance. Crash proof Linux has the feature of memory protection between processes, so that one program cant bring the whole system down. Virtual memory: Virtual memory uses paging for disk to a separate partition or a file with the possibility of adding more swapping areas during runtime . Memory pool Linux has a unified memory pool for the programs run by user and disk cache, so that all free memory can be used for caching, and the cache can be reduced when running large programs. Open source: Free and Open source code for all: All source code of Linux is available, including the whole kernel and all drivers for all the users . Also, all of it is freely distributable. Plenty of commercial programs are being provided for Linux without source, but everything that has been free, including the entire base operating system, is still free. Networking Linux performs well with TCP/IP networking, including ftp, telnet, NFS, etc. FEATURS OF WINDOWS Microsoft was the first to introduce the idea of an operating system which was named as Windows in as an attachment to the MS-DOS in reply to the increasing curiosity in Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs). Microsoft Windows in the end started to monitor the world market of the personal computers, going far ahead of Mac OS, which was the leader before its era. Microsoft has designed and marketed the Windows operating system as a collection of several operating systems. Windows is the most known OS to a lay man. It is trustworthy in the users point of view. First to introduce plug and play rule. UNIX VS LINUX. 1.Most common difference: UNIX is propriety system while Linux is an Open Source system. 2. Technical: In UNIX Development is targeted toward specific users and platform. Linux development is diverse. Linux standard base was formed to remove this problem but it wasnt of much help. UNIX maintains consistency and ease of access between different versions. UNIX has a published standard that they follow for their customer. Linux have inconsistencies between versions and no strict standards for tools, environment and functionality. In UNIX developers of the OS are bounded by standard for development while in Linux developers are free and have no restriction. In UNIX commands, tool and utilities etc are hardly vary over versions. Hence it is easy to administrate to update their skills. Moreover tools can be used on new edition of OS without a large body of testing. In Linux commands, tools and utilities may change over time and with the distributions. 3. Hardware : UNIX was coded for some specific hardware platforms. Linux was designed to be as compatible as possible. It can run on dozens of Architecture and support numerous I/O devices other external devices. Linux has limitless Supported devices are. 4. Kernel ; UNIX kernel is not freely available. Linux kernel is freely available. UNIX patches are available with highly tested. Linux patches are not highly tested as UNIX patches. 5. Updates and Bugs : Every OS, including UNIX and Linux, suffers from vulnerabilities and bugs that have to be patched, fixed and updated. But Linux enjoys a clear advantage over UNIX in this category. Linux bugs tend to die an early death, because the OS undergoes an incredible amount of scrutiny in the global open-source community UNIX VS. WINDOWS Stability: UNIX systems are more stable than windows. There are many factors to support this fact but to name just a big ones: UNIX handles high server loads better than Windows and UNIX machines seldom require reboots while Windows is frequently need them. Servers running on UNIX enjoy extremely high up-time and high reliability. Performance: While there is some doubt which operating system performs better, in our view both perform comparably in low-stress conditions. However UNIX servers under high load are strong than Windows. Compatibility: Web sites designed and programmed to be host under a UNIX-based web server can easily be hosted on a Windows server, whereas the reverse is not always true. This makes the programming for UNIX sites the better choice. Security :Unix has greater built-in security and permissions features than Windows. Until about the year 2000, i.e., before the launch of Microsoft Windows XP, Windows was considerably weaker in security as compared to Unix systems but today, it is really difficult to compare the two on this basis. Windows XP service pack 2 introduced various tools in areas such as emails, web browsing, memory, networking and even the kernel of the OS. The newer versions of Microsoft Windows that have recently been launched such as Windows Vista and Windows Seven, lay too much emphasis on security. They are far much secure than their elder versions. They have built in feasibility for permissions similar to UNIX which prohibits malicious programs from taking over the control of the system resources without user permission. LINUX vs WINDOWS Price The majority of Linux distributions are available for free or at a much lower price than Microsoft Windows. Microsoft Windows can cost between $50.00 $150.00 US dollars per each licensed copy. Ease Although the majority of Linux have improved in ease of use, Windows is still much easier to use for new computer users. Microsoft has made several changes that have made it a much easier to use operating system. It is still Easier than Linux. Reliability The majority of Linux variants are more reliable and can often run for months and years without needing to be rebooted. Although Microsoft Windows has made great advancements in reliability over the last few versions of Windows, it still behind the reliability of Linux. Softwares Linux has a large variety of software programs and utilities. However, Windows has a much larger selection of available software. Because of the large amount of Microsoft Windows users, there is a much larger selection of available software programs for windows. Hardware Hardware manufacturers have made great advancements in hardware support for Linux. Today Linux will support most hardware devices. However, most companies still do not offer drivers or support for their hardware in Linux. Because of the amount of windows users and the broader driver support, windows has larger support for hardware devices. Security Linux is and always been a very secure operating system. Although it still can be attacked. When compared to Windows, it much more secure. Although Microsoft has made changes over the years with security on their operating system, their operating system continues to be the most vulnerable to viruses and other attacks because of the large users. Open Source Many of the Linux programs are open source and enable users to modify the code however they desire. Microsoft is not open source and the majority of windows programs are not open source. Support Although it may be more difficult for users to familiar with all Linux distribution, there are vast amounts of online help, available books, and support is available for Linux. Windows includes vast amount of available online documentation as well as books on each of the versions of Windows. RESULT AND CONCLUSION: In this case study of which is better windows, Unix or Linux. From all the studies it was concluded that from the point of view of a lay user windows is still better for its ease of access. For the stability the UNIX is best among all. For the security feature the LINUX is best among all because of its large community. I conclude that windows is best for the personal use and for the new user , because it is widely used and easy to use. Moreover drivers and support fir the windows is largely and easily available. It also support GUI which helps user to interact easily with the OS. For commercial use LINUX is best to use. Because Linux is very stable and secure than windows ever. So for the large industries where the data is very important thing Linux is most secure OS to be used. Its true that UNIX is more stable than Linux and also compatible, but Unix is rarely used these days. Therefore Linux is still better and secure to use for commercial use.

The Politics of Poverty Exposed in There are No Children Here :: There are No Children Here Essays

The Politics of Poverty Exposed in There are No Children Here At a young age Lajoe, her parents and other siblings were the first family to move into the newly built Henry Horner Homes, a public housing high-rise project, on Chicago’s south side. Lajoe recalls how clean and spacious their apartment was then. As the years passed the city became less and less able to allocate funds to keep up with the repairs the buildings needed and the city seemed not to care. The projects became ran down, dank and to condense to support a large family. Lajoe became pregnant at the young age of fourteen and was unable finish her high school education. Eventually, she married Paul Rivers, the father of her child and had they had six more children. Lajoe’s husband Paul was estranged from them more often than not and rarely offered any support for their children. This story is centered on the lives of the two middle children, Lafayette and Pharaoh, in the family. The older of the two boys, Lafayette, takes on the role of co-parent and support system for his mother by worrying about his younger siblings’ well being, who their friends are and to if they ducking bullets properly in the hallway. He has four younger siblings a brother a few years young than he is and a set of triples. He especially kept a watchful eye on his brother Pharaoh who was weaker and easily intimidated. At one point in the story Lajoe realized that because of her husband absence and lack close adult relationships she had placed an enormous amount of responsibility on Lafayette’s shoulders. Lajoe said, â€Å"The things I should be telling Paul about I was talking to Lafie, I put him in a bad place. But I didn’t have anyone to talk to. Lafie, became a twelve year old man that day.†(101) Lafayette had lost his childhood somewhere in the projects. He lived in constant fear for his life and the lives of those he cared about. He tried to stay out of trouble and to avoid dealing with the gangs. But when you come from the projects it was hard to stay out of trouble. There were many occasions when the police wrongly accused Lafayette and his older brother, Terrence. As Lafayette got older found it harder to avoid the older boys and not get caught up in the fast crowd.

Why We Should Study Science

Why we should study science Science has brought many changes in the world today. It is used in all the corners of the world for the benefit of man. The motor-car or the electric lamp that we use today was not known to people who lived generations ago. Owing to the use of Science the people of today are able to do many things with ease and comfort. Travel  has become very easy. So men’s activity has increased greatly. Science has also been used to treat the sick and the sounded. As a result, people can now live a longer  life  than their ancestors could.Even the most serious diseases do not frighten people so much as they did before. Further, Science has made it possible for people to sit at home and see the world around. The television, the  newspaper  and color books help millions of people to learn at home. The radio too has done much to teach and inform people in all parts of the world. It is therefore necessary for us to learn Science, if we wish to enjoy greater comforts. Deal all! How are you today? I have some opinions to claim why we should learn science. First of all, if you have no knowledge, you don't have anything no job, no money and some more†¦ nd study not only in science but also in different area is the shortest way to gain knowledge. What if I'm a famous historical or writer and I have a good job, much money although I know nothing or few about math, physics or chemistry! OK, so do you have a computer or cell phone? How do you use it if you don't have some basic skill about computer or internet†¦ Who made those things and how can they make it? Of course they are engineers, experts, masters†¦ or at least they have enough science knowledge which they have to learn. Do you like computer? Do you want to make your our game or edit your photo, movie, music†¦You have to study some program languages or how to use some softwares. That's science, my friend. You still not agree! You dislike computer, you never use mob ile phone or telephone and you event don't use TV and radio. So what do you do when your wife tell you to install a new socket or fuse- learn basic electrical skill or tell your wife â€Å"I can't do it, ask your exboyfriend or someone else†. There are no electrical devices in your house+_+ where do you live^_^. What will happen when your children in grade school ask you to help them with their math, physic or chemical homework. That's

Interoperability of PANs, LANs and WANs The WritePass Journal

Interoperability of PANs, LANs and WANs Abstract Interoperability of PANs, LANs and WANs AbstractIntroduction2.0   Background2.1. Bluetooth (PAN)3.0   Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax Interoperability3.1  Ã‚   Solution to the coexistence problem of WiMax, Bluetooth and WLAN3.2  Ã‚   Seamless Handover4.0   Ã‚  Ã‚  Usage Scenario  4.1.   Interoperability Issues.5.0  Ã‚   ConclusionBibliographyRelated Abstract With the explosive growth of mobile wireless communication technologies, network integration is vital for next generation wireless networks as the different technologies available have been optimized for diverse usage models. This paper addresses the interoperability of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax focusing mainly on interference and handover management. Firstly the coexistence issue of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax is addressed as they operate in the adjacent (almost overlapping) bands. Secondly a new standard aimed at providing a framework for media independent handover (MIH) among diverse networks is presented. Finally using a usage scenario, it is further shown how the MIH framework helps in the handover management taking into consideration user preference and available resources in the above named networks. Keywords: MIH; interoperability; coexistence; Introduction Wireless communication growth has been on the increase in the past years, thanks to the advantages they offer which include deployment flexibility, compatibility and user mobility during communications. Emerged technologies have been designed independently to deal with specific service types, usability domains and user categories.. The need to optimize performance led to the integration of radio access technologies to extend service availability as users expect to be globally reachable everywhere and at all times to the best network possible. For this to be feasible, access networks have to work together to enable users take full advantage of the available options (Piris et al 2009). The IEEE 802.21 standard which provides a framework for Media-Independent Handover (MIH) in diverse networks is discussed in this paper. This standard defines three types of MIH services (event, command, and information) that facilitate the mobility management and handover decision making (lim et al 2009). The interoperability of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax is addressed from the interference and handover perspective. The problem of mutual interference between Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax is analyzed using time multiplexing enabling their coexistence and to further aid their interoperability, the IEEE 802.21 standard which seamlessly enables handover (which occurs frequently due to user preference or allocated resources) among diverse networks is discussed. This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 starts with a background which provides an overview of the wireless technologies considered above. In Section 3, using a collaborative technique, the coexistence problem of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax is addressed, the section   goes further on to analyze how the IEEE 802.21 standard makes possible the interoperability of the three technologies. Section 4 provides an illustrative use case that highlight the usage of the Media-Independent Handover Services standard in an integrated wireless environment and some issues associated with their interoperability is discussed. Finally, the paper ends with conclusion and future directions. 2.0   Background 2.1. Bluetooth (PAN) As stated by Bhagwat (2001), Bluetooth 1.1 is a short range wireless link technology intended for cable replacement. Bluetooth   operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band. As seen in Golmie (2001), Bluetooth’s air interface is based on an antenna power of 1mW and uses Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK) as its modulation scheme. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) divides the channel in 625 µs slot and support a data rate of 700kbps to 3Mbps. Bluetooth uses frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) Song et al (2007). Bluetooth uses authorization and authentication to verify users and their right to connect with each other. As indicated by Johansson et al (1999), Authentication in Bluetooth uses the challenge–response strategy and connection may require a one way, two-way or no authentication which is achieved based on the stored link key or by pairing. Traskback (2000) adds that there are three different security modes present in Bluetooth, Mode 1,2 and 3. 2.2.   Ã‚  WLAN(LAN) 802.11 is a collection of standards for implementing WLAN communication in the designated frequency bands. Currently there are about twenty two(22) amendments(Labiod et al 2007)which all adopt the media access technique called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).This work is focused on the 802.11g specification. Song et al (2007) indicates that 802.11g has a coverage of about 75 feets, supports the Direct squence spread spectrum and   Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing signalling method to attain a maximum data rate of 54Mbps. 802.11g operates in the 2.4GHz band. Security in WLAN can be achieved by deploying an authenication mechanism as a means to WLAN access contol and providing confidentiality for wireless data by establishing encrption. The EAP-TLS which provides certificate-based authentication for WLANs, a replaced WEP as it satisfied all the required properties of authentication protocols (Tavallaee, 2007). 2.3.  Ã‚   WIMAX(WAN) Wimax operates on FCC licensed frequency range of 10 to 66GHz and unlincensed frequencies of 2 to 11GHz   and has a theoritical bandwidth and range of 75Mbps and 50Km respectively. IEEE 802.16e, the mobile version of Wimax will be considered in this paper, 802.16e works in the 2.3GHz and 2.5GHz frequency bands and uses OFDM (Zhang Chen, 2008).,the WiMAX MAC is centralized and connection-oriented unlike WLAN MAC that is distributed and connectionless (DeBeasi, 2008). Security in WiMax is based on authentication, encryption and authorization. 3.0   Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax Interoperability This section analyzes a solution from the MAC layer to handle the coexistence issue between WiMax ,WLAN and Bluetooth and to further aid interoperability, discusses the implementation of the IEEE 802.21 standard which enables seamless handover among diverse networks. 3.1  Ã‚   Solution to the coexistence problem of WiMax, Bluetooth and WLAN The idea is to synchronize the different protocols to ensure that their bandwidth over a shared spectrum is allocated in a time multiplexed, non-concurrent but fair way. By this, interference can be eliminated when these technologies operate in an integrated environment. Considering a usage scenario where a Mobile node(MN) uses a Bluetooth enabled wireless headset to conduct a cellular conversation, while simultaneously downloading email or browsing the Internet through the phones WiMax and WLAN air link interchangeably, Time division multiplexing is uses to mitigate interference as Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax(band class 2 and 3) operate at adjacent frequencies bands (almost overlapping) thus causing conflict and severe performance degradation(Bitran Eshed, 2007) Firstly, the protocols are synchronized in time. A lowest common denominator is found between the different clock systems and are coordinated accordingly. WiMax time base is based on 5ms frame and Bluetooth is based on 625 µs per slot. 15ms is considered a common factor between the two system clocks during which 3 WiMax frames and 24 Bluetooth slots will be processed(Bitran Eshed, 2007). The addition of the WLAN in the coexistence scheme involves CSMA/CD which is not based on time allocations but on collision detection and the use of random back offs, ibid., p2. To minimize power consumption and to avoid interference, the WLAN   interface is set to sleep mode when it is not transmitting and have the access point buffer all its transmissions – up to a predefined buffer size. When the channel is free and it exits the sleep mode, it sends a trigger frame to the access point, who sends all its buffered data. The figure below is a solution showing how the technologies would operate in the 15ms time interval. Having synchronized the links and identified the fundamental, repetitive pattern,   it is essential to ensure that they remain synchronized throughout the concurrent operation of the links. Figure 1 illustrating time multiplexing of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax (Bitran Eshed, 2007) The Bluetooth SCO/HV3 profile defines a repetitive six slot period during which two consecutive slots are used for transmission. Because the Bluetooth interface is used in this scenario for transfer of voice, it is given preference. To avoid interruptions, the WiMax base station refrains from allocating transmission opportunities to the slots used by the Bluetooth. 3.2  Ã‚   Seamless Handover Based on user preference and available resources , the ability to switch (Seamless Handover) between the different technologies has been made possible by the IEEE 802.21 standard which provides a framework for Media-Independent Handover (MIH) in diverse networks. This is discussed below. The IEEE 802.21 standard (media independent handover) was proposed to facilitate interoperability between IEEE 802 and non IEEE 802 technologies (Pontes et al, 2008). The 802.21 framework is called the media independent handover (MIH). MIH provides link layer intelligence and other related network information to upper layers to optimize handovers (Ying et al, 2008). It is assumed that mobile Node has interfaces that supports all three technologies. To sustain uninterrupted user connections during handover across different networks, the handover-enabling functions (MIHF) defined by the IEEE 802.21 is logically introduced between Layer 2 and Layer 3 of the OSI network stack. The MIHF provides available information from lower layers (MAC and PHY) to the higher layers of the protocol stack which are used to make handover and link-selection decisions. Figure 2   MIH framework/architecture (Gupta et al, 2006). As seen in figure 2, The main component of the IEEE 802.21 framework is the MIHF. It provides a consolidated interface to the upper layers independent of the primary access technologies. This is made possible by three services: The Media-independent event service (MIES),the Media-independent information service (MIIS) and the Media independent command service (MICS) The MIES provides services to the upper layers   by   reporting   both   local and   remote events such as changes in link conditions, link status, and link quality. The MICS enables upper layer manage and control the parameters related to link behavior and handovers. The MICS offer commands to the upper layer, with this commands able to manage and send actions to the lower layers. The MIIS facilitates handovers by providing a mechanism for the MIHF to discover available neighboring network information within its vicinity. Hence, MIIS allows mobile nodes to check for available networks in range while using their currently active access network. 4.0   Ã‚  Ã‚  Usage Scenario Considering the same scenario cited above.FMIPv6 signaling is explicitly included as the Layer 3 mobility management protocol The MN request MIIS information and constantly listens to its interfaces. Upon receiving a signal from a WLAN AP accompanied by a 802.11 link detected event from the MAC layer sent to the MIHF, the MN becomes aware of a new connectivity opportunity. The event 802.11 link is sent to the upper layer, particularly sent to FMIPv6   the management protocol which in turn contacts the handover policy engine which pre-verifies the new connection. Depending on the implemented handover policy, the MN searches for information about the new network at the MIIS (such as security, required bandwidth security etc.) Figure 3 shows the operation in detail. The upper layer executes the handover decision taking into account the user’s preference and the resources available at the new network. After the decision has been made, the FMIPv6 signaling begins as illustrated in the figure above. The MN still stays connected to the previous point of attachment to provide a make-before-break approach enabling seamless hand over. When the FMIPv6’s FNA message is received, it indicates that handover has been completed (Pontes et al, 2008). The MN handover complete message releases the resources allocated by WiMax and deactivates the interface. Figure 3 WiMax/WLAN handover using the MIH framework with Bluetooth coexistence (PONTES et al 2008)   4.1.   Interoperability Issues. Inability to control soft handovers:   In the absence of an explicit support at the upper layer, an application is unable to benefit from soft handover capabilities when moving across different networks even if soft handovers are possible at the data link layer. The migrated connection are therefore open to packet loss and performance degradation. (Hsien et al, 2004). Infrastructure Support: Current approaches proposed that Mobile IP (MIP) can handle network layer mobility is only possible if the network provider provides for a home agent. Also the effectiveness of the approaches to achieve host mobility without incurring overhead in different networks, again is limited to the specificity of the networks they are assigned for. (Ibid). Power and Interference Management: Power management becomes a challenge when diverse access networks are integrated in same device. Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax(band class 2 and 3) operate at adjacent frequencies bands(almost overlapping) thus causing conflict End to end security: Ensuring a trusted, efficient and usage-model appropriate means of authenticating users is a key issues in cross-network connectivity. (Hurwitz Bryan, 2003) as the different network devices have different security settings. 5.0  Ã‚   Conclusion The emergence of heterogeneous wireless access technologies and their interoperability has been a major concern for future wireless systems. In this paper, the interoperability of WiMax, Bluetooth and WLAN have been discussed. Because no technology is good or generic enough to replace all others thus combined usage is a good approach to offer the always best connection. The coexistence of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax was analyzed first, taking into consideration the fact that the operate in adjacent (almost overlapping) frequency bands, so are subject to interference. Secondly with the use of the MIH framework, the interoperability of Bluetooth, WLAN and WiMax was illustrated through a common scenario.   Some issues associated with their interoperability were also mentioned. For the future, active research should be performed in this area to completely eliminate these interoperability issues to enable users seamlessly utilize services irrespective of the network concerned for better coverage even at a low cost. Bibliography Bhagwat, P. (2001). IEEE Internet Computing. Bluetooth technology for Short-Range wireless Apps. , 5 (3), 96-103. Bitran, Y., Eshed, E. (2007, June 18). Solving the coexistence of WiMAX, Bluetooth and WiFi in converged handsets. EE Times Design . DeBeasi, P. (2008, March 24). WiMAX INTRODUCTION. Retrieved from mobileparadigm.com/my articles/200803.WiMAXPart1.pdf Golmie, N. (2001). Interference in the 2.4 GHz ISM band: Challenges and solutions.(online). Retrieved from antd.nist.gov/pubs/golmie.pdf. Golmie, N. (2009). Seamless Mobility: Are we there yet? IEEE Wireless Communications National Institute of standards and Technology Gupta, V., Williams, M. G., Johnston, D., McCann, S., Barber, P., Ohba, Y. (2006, July 18). IEEE 802.21 Overview of Standard for Media Independent Handover Services. IEEE 802 Plenary . San Diego. Han, T., Zhang, N., Liu, K., Tang, B., Liu, Y. (2008). Analysis of Mobile WiMAX Security: Vulnerabilities and Solutions. IEEE International Conference , 828. Hsien, H.-Y., Kim, K.-H., Sivakumar, R. (2004). An End-to-End approach for transparent mobility accross heterogeneous wireless networks. Mobile networks and applications , 364. Hurwitz, R., Bryan, P. (2003, November 1). The Future of wireless handsets. Retrieved 2011, from Deviceforge.com: deviceforge.com/articles/AT7085477626.html Jahansson, P., Jahansson, N., Korner, U., Jahannes, E., Svennaqs, G. (1999). 1999 IEEE International Conference Communications, 1999. ICC 99. Short range radio based ad-hoc networking: performance and properties , 3, 1414. Jokela, J., Simpson, F., Zaks, A., Zhu, J. (2007). WPAN/WLAN/WWAN Multi-Radio Coexistence. IEE 802 Plenary. Atlanta. Labiod, H., Afifi, H., Santis, C. D. (2007). WI-FI T M , BLUETOOTH T M , ZIGBEE T M A ND WIMAX TM. The Netherlands: The Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht. Lansford, J., Nevo, R., Zehav, E. (2000, Nov 7). IEEE P802.15 Working Group for Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs). MEHTA: A method for coexistence between co-located 802.11b and Bluetooth systems . Hillsboro. Lim, W.-S., Kim, D.-W., Suh, Y.-j., Won, J.-J. (2009). mplementation and performance study of IEEE 802.21 in integrated IEEE 802.11/802.16e networks. Computer communication , 32 (1), 134-143. PONTES, A. B., SILVA, D. D., JOSÉ JAILTON, J., O. R. (2008, October 2008). HANDOVER MANAGEMENT IN INTEGRATED WLAN AND MOBILE WIMAX NETWORKS. IEEE Wireless Communications . Prince, J. (2006, November 12). Ensuring WLAN, Bluetooth Coexistence. Retrieved March 2011, from http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/article/HONSHI/20061121/124164/ Piris, E., Pentikousi, K. (2009). IEEE 802.21: Media-Independent Handover Services. Th e I n t e r n e t P ro to c o l Jo u r n a l , 12 (2), 7-27. Song, M., Shetty, S., Gopalpet, D. (2007). Mobile Networks and Applications. Coexistence of IEEE 802.11b and bluetooth: An Integrated Performance Analysis , 12 (5), 450-459. Tavallaee, M. (2007). â€Å"An Overview of WLAN Authentication Protocols†. Technical report, Univeristy of New Brunswick. Trskbck, M. (2000). Security of Bluetooth. An overview of Bluetooth Security, Department of Electrical and Communications Engineering Helsinki University of . Vainio, J. (2000). Bluetooth security. Proceedings of Helsinki University of Technology, Telecommunications Software and Multimedia Laboratory, Seminar on Internetworking: Ad Hoc Networking . Ying, W., Yun, Z., Jun, Y., Ping, Z. (2008, May 20). An Enhanced Media Independent Handover Framework for Heterogeneous Networks. IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, 2008. VTC Spring 2008. . , 2306. Zhang, Y., Chen, H.-H. (2008). Mobile Wimax : Towards Broadband Wireless Metropolitian Area Networks. NW: Taylor and Francis group,LLC.

Causes of the Great Migration (1910-1970)

Causes of the Great Migration (1910-1970) Between 1910 and 1970, an estimated six million African-Americans migrated from southern states to northern and Midwestern cities. Attempting to escape racism and  Jim Crow  laws of the South, African-Americans found work in northern and western steel mills, tanneries, and railroad companies.   During the first wave of the Great Migration, African-Americans settled in urban areas such as New York, Pittsburgh, Chicago and Detroit. However, by the onset of World War II, African-Americans were also migrating to cities in California such as Los Angeles, Oakland and San Francisco as well as Washingtons Portland and Seattle. Harlem Renaissance leader Alain Leroy Locke  argued in his essay, â€Å"The New Negro,† that â€Å"the wash and rush of this human tide on the beach line of the Northern city centers is to be explained primarily in terms of a new vision of opportunity, of social and economic freedom, of a spirit to seize, even in the face of an extortionate and heavy toll, a chance for the improvement of conditions. With each successive wave of it, the movement of the Negro becomes more and more a mass movement toward the larger and the more democratic chance - in the Negros case a deliberate flight not only form countryside to city, but from medieval America to modern. Disenfranchisement and Jim Crow Laws African-American men were granted the right to vote through the Fifteenth Amendment. However, white Southerners passed legislation that prevented African-American men from exercising this right. By 1908, ten Southern states had rewritten their constitutions restrict voting rights through literacy tests, poll taxes and Grandfather clauses. These state laws would not be overturned until the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was established, granting all Americans the right to vote. In addition to not having the right to vote, African-Americans were relegated to segregation as well. The 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case made it legal to enforce separate but equal public facilities including public transportation, public schools, restroom facilities and water fountains. Racial Violence African-Americans were subjected to various acts of terror by white Southerners. In particular, the Ku Klux Klan emerged, arguing that only white Christians were entitled to civil rights in the United States. As a result, this group, along with other white supremacist groups murdered African-American men and women by lynching, bombing churches, and also setting fire to homes and property. The Boll Weevil Following the end of slavery in 1865, African-Americans in the South faced an uncertain future. Although the Freedmens Bureau helped to rebuild the South during the Reconstruction period, African-Americans soon found themselves reliant on the same people who were once their owners. African-Americans became sharecroppers, a system in which small farmers rented farm space, supplies and tools to harvest a crop. However, an insect known as the boll weevil damaged crops throughout the south between 1910 and 1920. As a result of the boll weevil’s work, there was less of a demand for agricultural workers, leaving many African-Americans unemployed. World War I and the Demand for Workers When the United States decided to enter World War I, factories in northern and Midwestern cities faced extreme labor shortages for several reasons. First, more than five million men enlisted in the army. Secondly, the United States government halted immigration from European countries. Since many African-Americans in the South had been severely affected by the shortage of agricultural work, they responded to the call of employment agents from cities in the North and Midwest. Agents from various industrial sectors arrived in the South, enticing African-American men and women to migrate north by paying their travel expenses. The demand for workers, incentives from industry agents, better educational and housing options, as well as higher pay, brought many African-Americans from the South. For instance, in Chicago, a man could earn $2.50 per day in a meat packing house or $5.00 per day on an assembly line in Detroit The Black Press Northern African-American newspapers played an important role in the Great Migration. Publications such as the Chicago Defender published train schedules and employment listings to persuade Southern African-Americans to migrate north. News publications such as the Pittsburgh Courier and the Amsterdam News published editorials and cartoons showing the promise of moving from the South to the North. These promises included better education for children, the right to vote, access to various types of employment and improved housing conditions. By reading these incentives along with train schedules and job listings, African-Americans understood the importance of leaving the South.